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	Another frequent usage of the %4A%1 chord occurs when the bass,
and perhaps other notes, move in a stepwise manner.  Aside from chords
moving in complete parallelism, this passing %4A%1 chord is the main
formation that can be called a "contrapuntal" chord rather consistently.


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Example 10
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	Of course chords in other positions may be found in similar
usage, but the basic acoustical situation caused by the interval
of the 4th with the bass has apparently led composers away from a freer
use of the %4A%1 chord.
It must be remembered that there will always be some exceptions
to the general rules given here.  One prominent exception in regard to
the use of %4A%1 chords occurs when the lowest voice is serving in a
primarily melodic role.  In this sort of situation the lowest voice may
sometimes work as a kind of "misplaced" soprano, with the true bass line
being only implied.  Also it is not really rare to find a V chord  in the
%4A%1 position, but then the bass will usually move in a stepwise manner.
(See next example.)
In some rather chromatic situations it may be best to give the
%4A%1 position functional status equal to that of other positions.  This may occur
when the usual resolution of the %4A%1 chord does not appear or when 
the chord acts as a pivot to a new tonic.
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Example 11
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	In speaking of functions, the cardinal principle to remember
is that it is only the context that determines the function of each chord.
When the context remains uninfluenced by the appearance of
chromaticism,$$Since the normal usage of the minor mode includes much
chromaticism, the following discussion will generally refer to
situations in the major.$
 the functions are usually self-evident; the labels
applied by numbering the scale degrees of the roots usually give
indication of the functions.


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Example 12
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	The two main problems that must be faced in diatonic
situations have to do with substitute functions and the distinction
between chord tones and consonant non-chord tones.  Once the
concept of substitute functions is understood, the differentiation
between chord and non-chord tones should offer little difficulty
(until we reach music written near the end of the tonal
era).  When doubt occurs, the simplest choice (that is, the one
closest to the most common progression) is usually the right one.
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.BEGIN VERBATIM

 
Substitute Functions
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	Substitute functions occur in those situations where the notes
of one chord are found in a context that indicates the function of
another chord.  The intuitive use of substitute functions may have
grown out of a need for a kind of process of abbreviation that
could be applied to both harmonic and melodic situations.  Usually the
dominant function is involved.  The VII chord often carries a
dominant feeling and can be considered as an abbreviated V%47%1.  The small
%2s%1 following a Roman numeral gives indication of substitute
function.

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Example 13
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	When the 13th of an incomplete V chord leaps directly to the
tonic a 3rd below, we may often consider it to be an abbreviation of a
three-note scale movement.$$Concerning these "frozen" accessory tones
see Roger Sessions, Harmonic Practice, pp.224-231.$